Working together to address sexual misconduct in the Canadian Armed Forces
Publication: Journal of Military, Veteran and Family Health
Volume 8, Number s1
LAY SUMMARY
In 2015, the Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) implemented Operation HONOUR to eliminate sexual misconduct (SM) in the military. Sexual assault, inappropriate sexual behaviours, sexual harassment, and gender discrimination are all types of SM. Experiencing SM can result in depression, substance abuse, physical health problems, and even posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Despite Operation HONOUR, SM still happens in the CAF. At this time, many groups are working together to address SM and to support those who have experienced SM. Canadian-based researchers, policy makers, military members, Veterans, and clinicians are collaborating to identify new approaches to training, culture change, research, and treatment relating to SM in the CAF. The end goal of working together is to minimize SM in the CAF and ensure the health and safety of all CAF members and Veterans.
INTRODUCTION
The traumatic nature of high-risk military work, such as combat, is well-recognized. However, there is a substantial gap in knowledge regarding other potentially traumatic events related to service in the CAF, especially as they relate to sexual misconduct (SM). The CAF defines SM as “conduct of a sexual nature that can cause or causes harm to others.”1 SM, as defined in the Survey on Sexual Misconduct in the Canadian Armed Forces (SSMCAF), includes “sexual assault, inappropriate sexualized behaviours, and discriminatory behaviours, on the basis of sex, sexual orientation, or gender identity.”2 SM has been associated with adverse health outcomes, such as increased rates of depression, substance use, sexual health problems, physical health problems, and PTSD in the U.S. military population.3-5
To prevent and address SM within its ranks, the CAF initiated the now discontinued Operation HONOUR in 2015.6 Operation HONOUR included four lines of effort: 1) understanding the issue of SM, 2) responding more decisively to incidents, 3) supporting affected persons more effectively, and 4) preventing incidents from occurring.7 The implementation of Operation HONOUR led to numerous changes in the CAF, including SM-focused training and education, policy changes relating to diversity, harassment, and SM, SM-related research,8 and establishing the Sexual Misconduct Response Centre (SMRC). The SMRC provides expert advice, guidance, and recommendations to the CAF on SM-related matters, as well as providing support services and facilitating access to internal and external services for CAF members harmed or affected by SM.1 More recently the CAF released a new culture change strategy entitled the Path to Dignity and Respect.9 Veterans Affairs Canada (VAC) has also updated its approach and policies for determining Veterans’ SM-related claims.10
Despite these many actions, SM persists in the CAF. In 2018, 70% of actively serving Regular Force CAF members witnessed or experienced at least one form of SM (including inappropriate verbal or non-verbal communication, sexually explicit materials, physical contact or suggested sexual relations, discrimination on the basis of sex, sexual orientation, or gender identity) during the previous 12 months of military service, with 15.4% of respondents stating they had been personally targeted (women 28.1%, men 13%).2 SM was reported by male and female members, although female members reported being sexually assaulted at a rate five times higher than male members.2 In 2018, 4.3% of female-identifying and 1.1% of male-identifying Regular Force personnel reported they had been sexually assaulted during active service, and 7.0% of female-identifying and 1.2% of male-identifying reservist personnel reported being sexually assaulted.11 For both Regular and Reserve Force members, unwanted sexual touching was the most common form of sexual assault experienced. Higher reports of SM were disclosed by female-identifying, younger, Indigenous, disabled, LGBTQIA2S+, and junior non-commissioned members for both Regular and Reserve Forces members.2,12
MOVING FORWARD
To better support CAF members and Veterans affected by SM, future work on SM-related issues should move forward collaboratively between the CAF, VAC, the Department of National Defence (DND), and other agencies and institutions. To that end, Canadian-based researchers, policy makers, military members, Veterans, people affected by SM, and clinicians are coming together to create an operational plan to establish core areas of focus that will inform the next steps in research and treatment of SM in Canada. Collaborative knowledge exchange discussions are taking place through SM-focused symposiums, workshops, and a weekly Community of Practice established to better understand and increase awareness of the issues and gaps associated with SM in the areas of research, policy, and treatment. The remainder of this article will highlight and discuss gaps and recommendations identified during a one-day workshop on SM held in December 2019 and more recent discussions that took place in the Community of Practice. These recommendations address training, culture change, research, and treatment relating to SM in the CAF.
Training
SM perpetration in the military was, until recently, supported at a systems level through acceptance of hypermasculinity and a hypersexualized workplace culture.13 For the CAF to foster an environment of dignity and respect, expectations are best established beginning at recruitment and entrance into the training systems. The following training changes could be implemented:
1.
Moral dilemma training. CAF members are often faced with morally ambiguous situations in which they are unsure of how to properly react.14 Including SM-related moral dilemmas in diverse training scenarios could provide members with a chance to both identify SM-related situations and also work through these scenarios in a consequence-free environment. These SM-related moral dilemmas could augment or be included in Respect in the CAF training workshops being conducted by the SMRC.15
2.
Skills training. New recruits and currently serving members can be taught crucial boundary setting skills, assertiveness skills, emotional intelligence, and coping skills, as well as be provided with awareness training on SM. Existing evidence suggests that crucial skills, such as boundary-setting and assertiveness, may help to reduce the risk of SM victimization,16 and other skills, such as emotional intelligence, may reduce the experience of negative emotional responses and intrusive thoughts after experiencing or witnessing incidents of SM, which may enable members to adapt more readily to the experience.17
Culture change
Currently, the CAF is striving to empower women, visible minorities, and LGBTQIA2S+ serving members. Canada’s Defence Policy states the CAF must “reflect the diversity of the country we defend” and that it is committed to “gender equality and providing a work environment where women are welcomed, supported, and respected.”18 In fact, the CAF is striving to have 25.1% representation of women, 3.5% representation of Indigenous Peoples, and 11.8% representation of visible minorities within its ranks by 2026.19 Under Operation HONOUR, the CAF also implemented systems that support and validate members who come forward with allegations of SM.6
An important part of the culture change will be a shift from rules-based ethics to values-based ethics. Although the CAF’s ethical culture is formally stated to be values-based,20 its history of SM in the CAF suggests that, in practice, the culture — as it relates to SM — has remained more rules-based. With rules-based ethics, military actions are valued if they are in accordance with conventions, laws, and rules of engagement, whereas with values-based ethics, military actions are valued if they promote good and prevent evil.21
Values-based ethics, also known as virtue-based ethics, is argued to be the best method to prevent misconduct by military personnel.22 If the CAF ethics were, in fact, values-based, the rates of SM would be low because members would not engage in behaviours that do not uphold “respect and dignity of all persons.”20 However, the Deschamps Report described a “hostile, sexualized environment” in which there were few consequences for engaging in SM.23 Since the implementation of Operation HONOUR, reported rates of SM have declined.2,12 This decline suggests SM behaviour has been changing because of threat of punishment under the new policies and directives. The authors believe the CAF’s goal of culture change will be supported by shifting to values-based ethics that stresses the unique contributing value of all members of the CAF.
Changing the culture around SM will also require addressing informal CAF culture. As noted earlier, the CAF recently released a new culture change strategy, Path to Dignity and Respect,9 which provides an in-depth analysis of CAF culture and identifies cultural aspects the CAF must eliminate, change, or strengthen to address SM. However, the focus of the strategy appears to be on the formal CAF culture, not the informal culture. Informal organizational culture is the shared values and norms that govern members’ interactions with each other and with those outside of the organization.24 Informal culture includes implicit behaviour norms, values, organizational myths and rituals, organizational beliefs, and language.25 In the CAF, informal culture includes the ways members interact with each other when they feel relaxed enough to share their feelings and beliefs about larger issues and intolerances, which may occur more often in social settings, apart from the regular workplace. Any effective culture change should address both the formal and informal CAF culture.
Research
Future research on SM in Canada should include investigators from a range of backgrounds external to, and from within, the CAF, DND, and VAC. Until recently, little SM-related research was Canadian-specific, and much of it had been conducted independently within one organization, rather than collaboratively between organizations. Coming together to work collaboratively, investigators are now working to move SM research forward and address gaps through knowledge exchange and research programs. Future areas of SM research identified through collaborative knowledge exchange discussions include:
1.
The link between SM and moral injury. Moral injury (MI) is the “psychological distress experienced in response to perpetrating, observing and/or failing to prevent acts that transgress deeply held moral standards.”14 Shay26 defines MI as a betrayal of what is right by someone who holds legitimate authority or by oneself in a high-stakes situation. MI events can have psychological, biological, spiritual, behavioural, and social impacts.27 MI often leads to feelings of guilt, shame and betrayal.27 SM in the military can be a MI when the incident involves a significant perceived betrayal by those in a circle of trust (e.g., within-rank/peer violence) and/or by those in a position of authority (e.g., leadership).28,29 However, there is a spectrum of SM (e.g., from sexually offensive comments to rape)1 and not everyone is traumatized by or develops MI from SM situations. Understanding the link between SM and MI will inform future treatment directions.
2.
Research with non-CAF members. Although Statistics Canada is conducting research on Regular Force and Primary Reserve Force CAF members,2,12 gaining a fulsome understanding of the impacts of SM also requires research that involves other Canadians who have been impacted by SM, such as Veterans, as well as family of CAF members and Veterans affected by SM. Information on many of these Canadians, and the long-term impacts on their health and wellness, is currently unavailable and is needed to evaluate where resources should be targeted and what kinds of organizational interventions can be implemented. Such research can also address knowledge gaps in subpopulations impacted by SM that are not as visible as women (e.g., qualitative interviews with men and LGBTQIA2S+ members to understand their experiences in more depth) to identify targets for further research and prevention efforts.
3.
Allegations of SM perpetration. Being accused, and possibly convicted, of committing SM can be traumatic for alleged perpetrators. Research suggests they, and their families, can suffer enormously from the stigma associated with the accusation, investigation,30 and conviction.31,32 At this time, little is known about the implications of allegations of sexual misconduct on CAF members and their families.
4.
Affected men and LGBTQIA2S+ members. Men and LGBTQIA2S+ members may have their own unique experiences of SM, as well as unique experiences of PTSD and MI that may develop. Researching ways in which men and LGBTQIA2S+ members experience SM and developing appropriate treatment approaches for them is essential.
Treatment
Suggestions for treating those affected by SM include:
1.
Community-based therapy. Developing community-based therapy specific to SM, such as peer support, will help to mitigate isolation, build skills, and help affected members process traumatic experiences. Current U.S. research on the use of peer-support for Veterans with PTSD suggests attending peer support provides social support and understanding, and helping others within a peer-support setting provides a sense of purpose and meaning. It also suggests discussing experiences with peers helps to normalize experiences and reduce stigma, and that peer support provides a link to support for those who are unwilling to reach out for professional treatment.33 Although the SMRC is currently looking into peer-support programming both online and in person, it has not been implemented at this time.34
2.
Discharge. While experiencing SM is often isolating at any point during or after service, this isolation can be exacerbated for some by feelings of purposelessness upon leaving the CAF.35 For those struggling in this respect, therapists, clinicians, and other support persons should explore strategies to help Veterans find a new sense of purpose.
3.
Tiered model of care. A tiered model of care, from community supports to specialist treatment, is critical to ensure integrated care pathways. Integrated care pathways are patient-focused, multidisciplinary care plans that improve the coordination and consistency of patient care.36 Implementing integrated care pathways through DND- and VAC-accessed treatments is critical to facilitating the appropriate level of care for each individual and should be prioritized.
4.
Innovative therapies. In addition to typical therapies, there is a need for clinicians to explore new and innovative treatments for individuals experiencing complex disorders that do not respond to current therapies. Most trauma treatments are cognitively based and, while they are effective for many, there is a significant group, particularly within the military population, who do not find adequate relief through these traditional therapies.37 Investigating integrative personalized treatment approaches using novel adjunctive treatments for trauma-related disorders will be critical for this population.
Conclusion
Given the significant adverse effects SM can have on CAF members and Veterans, it is important to continue working together collaboratively on SM-related issues. In Canada, researchers, policy makers, military members, Veterans, people affected by SM, and clinicians are coming together to discuss and work collaboratively to address the issues and gaps associated with SM in the areas of research, policy, and treatment. Through these collaborative efforts, all are working to ensure the health and safety of CAF members and Veterans.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge financial support provided to this project by the Government of Canada’s Defence Engagement Fund, the Canadian Institute for Military and Veteran Health Research, and the Homewood Research Institute. Margaret C. McKinnon is supported by the Homewood Chair in Mental Health and Trauma at McMaster University. The authors would also like to acknowledge Roy Cameron and Madelaine Meehan for their input to the manuscript.
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Published In
Journal of Military, Veteran and Family Health
Volume 8 • Number s1 • April 2022
Pages: 85 - 93
Copyright
For permission to share, copy, or redistribute, contact [email protected].
History
Received: 26 February 2021
Revision received: 8 June 2021
Accepted: 14 June 2021
Published online: 27 October 2021
Published in print: April 2022
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Authors
Contributors
Conceptualization: MC McKinnon, A Heber, R Park, and R Lanius
Investigation: A Brown, H Millman, B Easterbrook, A Heber, R Park, R Lanius, A Nazarov, R Jetly, R Stanley-Aikens, C Sanderson, C Hutchins, K Darte, AL Hall, S Brémault-Phillips, L Smith-MacDonald, D Doak, T Oakley, AA Nicholson, M Pichtikova, P Smith, A Mulligan, C Byerlay, and MC McKinnon
Writing — Original Draft: A Brown, H Millman, and B Easterbrook
Writing — Review & Editing: A Brown, H Millman, B Easterbrook, A Heber, R Park, R Lanius, A Nazarov, R Jetly, R Stanley-Aikens, C Sanderson, C Hutchins, K Darte, AL Hall, S Brémault-Phillips, L Smith-MacDonald, D Doak, T Oakley, AA Nicholson, M Pichtikova, P Smith, A Mulligan, C Byerlay, and MC McKinnon
Visualization: A Brown, H Millman, and B Easterbrook
Supervision: MC McKinnon
Project Administration: A Brown
Funding Acquisition: MC McKinnon
Competing Interests
The authors have nothing to disclose.
Funding
Financial support was provided for this project by the Government of Canada’s Defence Engagement Fund, the Canadian Institute for Military and Veteran Health Research, and the Homewood Research Institute. Margaret C. McKinnon is supported by the Homewood Chair in Mental Health and Trauma at McMaster University.
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Journal of Military, Veteran and Family Health 2022 8:s1, 85-93
Journal of Military, Veteran and Family Health 2022 8:s1, 85-93