Veterans behind bars: Examining criminogenic risk factors of Veteran incarceration
Publication: Journal of Military, Veteran and Family Health
Volume 6, Number S3
Abstract
Abstract
Introduction: Research on former military personnel incarcerated in Canada is limited. The objectives of this study were to determine the characteristics and criminogenic risk factors of Veterans using a convenience sample of 25 inmates at five Ontario detention centres from 2012 to 2015. This study builds on a pilot project of 19 former military personnel incarcerated at three Ontario detention centres between 2011 and 2012. Methods: Data on sociodemographic variables, military service, and history of physical and mental health problems was obtained through semi-structured interviews. Further data was gathered from institutional health care records. The official offence history and Level of Service Inventory–Ontario Revised (LSI–OR) scores of the inmates, if available, were obtained via client profiles. Results: Twenty-five male inmates self-identified as having been in the military and consented to participate in the study. Their mean age was 43.5 years. Participants indicated serving an average of six years in the military. Fifty-two percent of participants served in the Canadian Armed Forces and 24% in the United States Armed Forces. Other countries of service included Cuba, South Korea, former Yugoslavia, Portugal and Venezuela. Seventy-two percent had prior incarcerations, and 44% were convicted of criminal offences during their military service. For those on remand, 29.2% had been charged with homicide and related offences at the time of the study. A total of 48% of participants indicated involvement in war or operational missions during their military service. Seventy-two percent were diagnosed with a mental health condition during their lifetime. Discussion: This study provides valuable information about the unique characteristics, criminogenic risk factors, and mental health needs of incarcerated Veterans. If Veterans are identified on admission to a correctional facility, future care could be more appropriately directed to reduce criminal recidivism.
Résumé
Introduction : Les recherches sur les anciens militaires incarcérés au Canada sont limitées. La présente étude visait à déterminer les caractéristiques et les facteurs criminogènes des vétérans au moyen d’un échantillon de commodité de 25 détenus provenant de cinq centres de détention de l’Ontario entre 2012 et 2015. L’étude découle d’un projet pilote auprès de 19 anciens militaires incarcérés dans trois centres de détention de l’Ontario entre centres 2011 et 2012. Méthodologie : Les chercheurs ont obtenu des données sur les variables sociodémographiques, le service militaire et l’histoire des troubles de santé physique et mentale au moyen d’entrevues semi-structurées. Ils ont amassé d’autres données dans les dossiers de santé institutionnelle. Ils ont obtenu l’histoire officielle des délits et l’Inventaire du niveau de service – Révision de l’Ontario des détenus, s’ils étaient disponibles, au moyen des profils des clients. Résultats : Vingt-cinq détenus de sexe masculin ont eux-mêmes déclaré avoir déjà été dans l’armée et ont consenti à participer à l’étude. D’un âge moyen de 43,5 ans, ils ont indiqué avoir servi en moyenne six ans dans l’armée. Cinquante-deux pour cent des participants ont servi dans les Forces armées canadiennes, et 24 % dans les Forces armées des États-Unis. D’autres avaient été militaires à Cuba, en Corée du Sud, dans l’ancienne Yougoslavie, au Portugal et au Vénézuela. Soixante-douze pour cent avaient déjà été incarcérés, et 44 % avaient été déclarés coupables d’infractions criminelles pendant leur service militaire. Chez ceux qui étaient en détention provisoire, 29,2 % avaient été accusés d’homicide et de délits connexes au moment de l’étude. Au total, 48 % des participants ont indiqué avoir participé à des missions de guerre ou des missions opérationnelles pendant leur service dans l’armée. Enfin 72 % ont obtenu un diagnostic de trouble de santé mentale pendant leur vie. Discussion : La présente étude fournit de l’information précieuse sur les caractéristiques uniques, les facteurs de risque criminogènes et les besoins de santé mentale des vétérans incarcérés. Si les vétérans sont identifiés à l’admission dans des etablissements correctionnels, les futurs soins pourraient être mieux orientés pour réduire le récidivisme criminel.
INTRODUCTION
The relationship between military service and involvement in the criminal justice system has been well documented. In scholarly literature, studies on incarcerated Veterans date back to the Vietnam War era.1–3 Several years after the war, the U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics began surveying inmates about their prior military service.4 This data and related research have revealed risk factors leading to the incarceration of Veterans.5–7 These include substance use disorder, mental illness, homelessness, and criminal history. Exposure to war zones may also have a negative impact, possibly leading to subsequent criminal misconduct.8 In 2008, a study found that approximately one-fifth of U.S. troops who saw action in combat reported symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression.9 Statistics by Veterans Affairs Canada (VAC) estimate that “up to 10% of war zone Veterans – including war-service Veterans and peacekeeping forces – will go on to experience … PTSD, while others may experience at least some of the symptoms associated with this condition.”10 Other war-related factors, in addition to combat exposure11–13 and PTSD,14,15 such as substance abuse6 and difficulty transitioning to civilian life,13,16 may further increase the risk of incarceration for Veterans.
Elbogen et al, who proposed a risk assessment tool for evaluating incarcerated Veterans, identified several risks for recidivism, including substance use disorder, lack of income, history of violence and arrests, combat experience, and anger associated with PTSD.17 According to a survey of Veterans in U.S. state and federal prisons and local jails (facilities under the jurisdiction of a city, district, or county that generally house inmates awaiting sentencing or serving sentences of 12 months or less), between 2011 and 2012, 8% of all inmates serving time in correctional facilities were Veterans, a decrease from 2004.18 The average age of incarcerated Veterans in jails was 43 years, 11 years older than the average age of non-Veterans (32 years). Twenty-five percent of Veterans in prison and 31% of Veterans in jails reported participating in combat while in the military. Incarcerated Veterans who had seen combat were more likely to have been diagnosed with a mental health condition than non-combat Veterans (60% vs. 44% in prison, and 67% vs. 49% in jails). Forty-eight percent of Veterans in prison and 55% in jails had been told they had a mental health condition by a mental health professional. Approximately 43% of Veterans in prison had at least four prior arrests, as compared to 55% of non-Veterans. Additionally, 64% of Veterans in prison had been sentenced for violent offences – 35% for violent sexual offences and 29% for non-sexual violent offences – compared to 52% of non-Veterans (23% for violent sexual offences and 29% for non-sexual violent offences). Incarcerated Veterans also had more formal education than non-Veterans.18 Studies comparing the mental health histories of justice-involved Veterans to Veterans with no justice system involvement found justice-involved Veterans were more likely to report prior diagnoses, or treatment, for mental health conditions and higher instances of comorbid psychiatric and substance use disorders.6,19,20 A meta-analysis of 18 samples from studies of incarcerated Veterans highlighted the fact that “at least half of justice-involved Veterans are estimated to have a substance use disorder, which may have implications for likelihood of re-offending,” adding that research shows Veterans with comorbid disorders have the greatest number of arrests and are more likely to be violent.21
In September 2010, the U.K. Defence Analytical Services and Advice (DASA) unit of the Ministry of Defence and the Ministry of Justice estimated that 3.5% of inmates in England and Wales had served in the British Armed Forces.22 Similar to the findings in the U.S., 99.6% of these Veteran inmates were male. Fifty-one percent were age 45 and older, while 29% were over age 55. The majority were serving sentences for violence against the person (33%) or sexual offences (25%).
Published data on incarcerated Veterans in Canada is limited. A study by Correctional Service Canada (CSC)23 and VAC to determine the current number of offenders in federal facilities (institutions for offenders serving a custodial sentence of two years or more) with Canadian military service is the most comprehensive published study, to date, on incarcerated Veterans, updating two earlier studies conducted on similar populations.24,25 Of the 3,956 offenders included in the study, 3% self-reported serving in the Canadian Armed Forces. Nearly all were male (97.4%) and were serving an average sentence of 3.2 years. On admission, Veterans were older than other inmates, at 42.5 and 36.5 years old, respectively. The rate at which both Veterans and non-Veterans reported a previous diagnosis of depression was 25%. Although Veterans in the CSC/VAC study reported a low rate of alcohol dependence, substance use was a factor in the offences of 35% of them. Veterans in the study were also more likely than non-Veterans to be incarcerated for a sexual offence; 37% had a sexual offence history, and 14% were repeat sex offenders. Similar to non-Veterans, 90% of incarcerated Veterans were classified as medium-to-high static risk. Additionally, 89% were classified as medium-to-high need, with the areas of highest need being personal/emotional (73%), attitude (65%), associates (47%), substance abuse (47%), and employment (43%). Veterans were said to have medium-to-high re-integration potential (72%) overall, and 80% were said to have moderate-to-high motivation, which suggests a willingness to engage in correctional plans.23
Pilot study
In March 2011, a pilot study was conducted to determine the number of former military personnel incarcerated at three Ontario detention centres.26 Detention centres are provincially operated, maximum-security correctional facilities for adults remanded into custody awaiting trial or serving sentences of less than two years. A total of 19 inmates reported previous military service and took part in the pilot study. On average, participants had served in the military for five years. Almost all were previously incarcerated, and all reported at least one risk factor for incarceration. Those who had been deployed during their service were more likely than those who had not been deployed to be diagnosed with and received treatment for a mental health condition prior to incarceration. The current study builds on the results of the pilot study and seeks to determine the unique characteristics and criminogenic risk factors of Veterans. It posits that, if Veterans are identified on admission to the judicial system, future care could be more appropriately directed to reduce criminal recidivism.
METHODS
This is the first descriptive study in Canada to examine the characteristics and criminogenic risk factors of Veterans and military personnel incarcerated at five detention centres in Ontario. The project received research ethics board approval from the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health and the Ontario Ministry of Community Safety and Correctional Services (MCSCS).
Participants
Participants were recruited using posters placed in admissions areas, health care and holding units at five Ontario detention centres. Inmates wanting to take part in the study completed a written request to participate that was forwarded by the health care unit to the researcher. The researcher made arrangements with correctional centre staff to contact and interview inmates who expressed interest in participating. To qualify for the study, participants had to self-identify as Veterans or military personnel of any country’s armed forces and were required to sign a consent form. For the purpose of the study, a Veteran was defined as any person who reported prior service in a country’s armed forces, as regular force personnel or as a reservist, regardless of their type of military discharge. Volunteers who did not have military service, had worked for the military only as civilians, or had been child soldiers were excluded from the study. Those who reported having served in the Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) gave signed permission for the researchers to contact VAC for their service records. Those whose service records could not be confirmed by VAC were excluded.
Data collection and measures
Data was collected using semi-structured interviews. Questions comprised both personal and military history, including length of service, rank achieved, history of deployment, positive and negative aspects of military service, reasons for leaving the military and adjustment to civilian life post-service. Sociodemographic variables and history of physical and mental health problems were also collected. Information gathered through semi-structured interviews was obtained solely via inmate self-report. The only information provided by VAC was confirmation of service in the CAF. Inmate detention centre health care records were also reviewed by the researcher to affirm date of birth and, if available, history of previous incarceration(s), history of diagnosis and/or treatment for psychiatric condition(s), illicit drug use, alcohol consumption, and suicidal ideation reported on admission. The Offender Tracking Information System (OTIS) – the database used by the Ontario MCSCS to record information about adult offenders both incarcerated and on probation27 – was also reviewed to collect complete criminal histories dating back to 1990, including previous incarcerations, current offence(s), and year of first recorded offence. Each participant’s Level of Service Inventory–Ontario Revised (LSI–OR) score was also reviewed, if available. The LSI–OR is an assessment tool designed to predict criminal recidivism among offenders.28
RESULTS
Demographics
The total number of participants that met the inclusion criteria for the study was 25, all of whom were male. No females were included in the study, as none identified as serving in the military. Only one of the participants from the pilot project was able to participate in the current study, as he was released from custody after the completion of the pilot project but arrested on new charges during the time the current study was conducted. Of the 25 study participants, 52% were born in Canada, and 84% were Canadian citizens. Sixty-eight percent identified as white, 8% as Aboriginal, 8% as black, and 16% as being of other racial origins. Approximately 12% of incarcerated Veterans reported being married or having a common-law partner and had, on average, 1.6 children. Participants in the study ranged in age from 25 to 73, with an average age of 43.5 years. Forty percent reported some form of post-secondary education (college, university or a certificate program); however, 12% did not complete high school. In regard to income, 48% reported being employed full or part-time at the time of their arrest, 28% reported receiving disability benefits, and 8% reported having no income. Six of 25 participants (24%) reported a lack of stable housing (having no fixed address) at the time of their arrest. It should be noted that OTIS identified a seventh study participant with no fixed address at the time of the study; however, the participant reported having an address during his research interview.
Military service
Of the 25 study participants, 13 (52%) served in the CAF, six (24%) reported serving in the U.S. military, two (8%) in the Yugoslav National Army, and one each in the Portuguese, Venezuelan, Cuban, and South Korean armed forces. The average age at which participants reported entering the military was 21 (ranging from ages 17 to 38). The average number of years reported to be served was 6 (ranging from basic training to 25 years). Two (8%) participants reported serving less than a year, 14 (56%) served between 1 and 5 years, and nine (36%) served more than 5 years. A total of 92% of participants reported serving in the regular force, with 20% reporting service in both the regular and reserve forces. Eight percent reported their time in the military as compulsory service. The majority of participants reported the army as the branch of service to which they belonged and their rank as a non-commissioned member. Fifty-six percent reported receiving an honourable discharge. Eight (32%) reported receiving benefits from VAC or Veterans Affairs (VA). Reasons for military discharge differed by participant but included medical release, pursuit of civilian opportunities, disillusionment and legal issues, including arrest.
Forty-eight percent of participants reported difficulty transitioning from military to civilian life. They described experiencing negative events related to transition, including divorce, substance use and legal issues. When participants were asked to describe the effect of military service on their lives, 92% reported positive effects. These included feeling a sense of accomplishment, learning discipline and teamwork. Conversely, 88% reported negative experiences as well. These included the death of friends, exposure to danger, stress, alcohol abuse, mental health problems, and a lack of support.
Participant history
All study participants (except for one who was on immigration hold) were admitted on remand to provincial detention centres. None was admitted on a sentence to incarceration. Over two-thirds of participants (68%) had a history of previous incarcerations, and 48% were arrested for the first time while serving in the military. The average length of time between release from the military and first arrest for the 13 participants who had not been arrested during their military service was 19.9 years, with a range of 0 to 43 years.
Study participants reported a past or present history of alcohol abuse (88%) and substance abuse (64%), identified through self-reports, health care records, and LSI–OR scores. Substance abuse and alcohol abuse were scored as either 1 (present) or 0 (not present) based on answers to the questions “Have you abused drugs?” (and “which ones?”) and “Have you abused alcohol” (and “frequency and quantity?”). Scores were determined based on the definition of substance/alcohol abuse in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.; DSM-5). Self-reports were compared to information provided by nurses at the correctional facilities and the LSI–OR. Self-reported admissions of alcohol and substance abuse were favoured, but information obtained from the LSI–OR and nurses took precedence in two cases where alcohol abuse was denied by participants. The LSI–OR supported self-reports of substance abuse in all but one case, in which an inmate admitted to abusing drugs in the past, but the information was not scored on the LSI–OR. Cannabis was self-reported to be the most commonly used illicit drug among those who used drugs, followed by cocaine.
Of the participants in the study, 72% had received a mental health diagnosis. Twenty-four percent, identified either by self-report or chart review, were said to be suffering from apparent PTSD due to deployment. No other identified mental health conditions could be directly attributed to military service. A total of 4% of participants received treatment for mental health conditions prior to serving in the military, 20% received treatment while serving, and 64% after their service. Fifty-six percent reported taking psychotropic medications, and 24% had a history of traumatic brain injury. Six of the study participants expressed suicidal ideation upon admission. Two reported experiencing suicidal thoughts at the time of the study, and four had attempted or threatened suicide in the past.
Military deployments
Twelve study participants (48%) reported deploying to a war zone or on other operational military missions occurring between 1979 and 2012. The characteristics of incarcerated Veterans who were and were not deployed are summarized in Table 1.
| Characteristic | No. (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| Not deployed (n = 13) | Deployed (n = 12) | |
| Previous federal or provincial incarceration | 8 (61.5%) | 9 (75.0%) |
| Treatment for psychiatric problems/diagnoses | 9 (69.2%) | 9 (75.0%) |
| Street drug use, past and current) | 9 (69.2%) | 7 (58.3%) |
| Alcohol consumption, past and/or current) | 10 (76.9%) | 12 (100%) |
| Suicidal ideation on admission | 3 (23.1%) | 3 (25%) |
Six of 12 incarcerated Veterans who deployed during their service were diagnosed with PTSD, while all 13 incarcerated Veterans who did not deploy during their service were not diagnosed with such a condition. Six participants with no history of deployment reported having a psychiatric condition, most commonly depression. Although it was more common for participants who had deployed to seek mental health treatment while serving, treatment rates post-service were similar for both groups. Only one participant from each group sought treatment for mental health prior to service. Although the two groups shared many similar offences, those with no history of deployment were charged with more serious crimes than those who had been deployed at the time of the study.
Criminogenic risk factors
This study revealed that the mean age at which participating incarcerated Veterans were first charged with an offence was 35. It also showed that the length of time between release from the military and being initially charged could range from 0 to 43 years. Seventy-two percent of incarcerated Veterans had a history of previous convictions, with 48% arrested for the first time while serving in the military (one of them did not get convicted). For those on remand (24), the most frequent charges faced by study participants were administration of justice offences (41.7%) and assault and related offences (33.3%). For those on remand, the most serious offences were homicide and related offences (29.2%) and assault and related offences (20%).
Eight study participants (32%) had an LSI–OR risk assessment on file. These had been administered by social workers at the detention centres. LSI–OR scores are used to predict criminal recidivism by addressing eight domains of risk and need. According to the LSI–OR assessments, one participant was classified as very high (override from medium) risk to re-offend, five were classified as high (including three overrides from medium) risk to re-offend, and two were classified as medium (including one override from low) risk to re-offend. The specific domains listed as medium-to-high risk included criminal history (5/8) and family/marital (4/8), while the other six domains (education/employment, leisure/recreation, companions, pro-criminal attitude/orientation, substance abuse, and antisocial pattern) were scored low or very low.
DISCUSSION
The average age of the subjects in this study (43.5 years) was similar to the average ages found in U.S. and UK studies of incarcerated Veterans.22,29 The average age of inmates in Ontario detention centres is 34.5 years, while the average age of inmates in Canadian federal institutions is 33 years. An Ontario study found the mean age of 522 inmates with mental health conditions in Ontario correctional facilities to be 35 years.27 Thus, the mean ages of inmates identified in these studies are younger than the mean age of incarcerated Veterans identified in the current study. Entry into the military at a later age has become more common in Canada since the mid-1980s. Research suggests that the age at which an individual enters the military is associated with different outcomes, and late mobilization has been shown to increase the “risk of negative trajectories for physical health” related to “work-life disadvantages” for Veterans, such as late entry into the workforce after military service.30 In the current study, the average age at which participants entered the military was 21, following which they served for an average of six years. Some were deployed multiple times and involved in combat, while others did not deploy during their military service.
This study shows there is great diversity among incarcerated Veterans at Ontario detention centres. Other studies of this population have not included Veterans who served in the armed forces of other countries,22,24,29 yet this study showed 48% of participants served for countries other than Canada. Study participants were determined to be older and more educated than the majority of inmates at provincial correctional facilities (see Table 2) in Ontario. This is consistent with data produced by U.S. studies.29
| Characteristic | Veterans admitted to Ontario institutions (N = 25) | Total males admitted to Ontario institutions* (N = 34,969)† |
|---|---|---|
| Oldest | 73 years | 92 years |
| Race | 68% White; 8% Aboriginal; 24% other race | 55% White; 10.5% Aboriginal; 25% other race |
| No high school diploma | 12% | 58% |
| NFA or shelter address | 24% | 6% |
| No previous convictions | 28% | 19% |
*
Admitted in 2015. Source: Ministry of Community Safety and Correctional Services.31
†
Note that these 34,969 individuals make up the 50,279 total admissions cited in Table 3. These numbers differ, as one individual may have had multiple admissions. Incarcerated individuals were admitted to institutions for a number of reasons, the most common of which are remand and to serve sentences.
NFA = no fi xed address.
Criminogenic risk factors
A number of incarcerated Veterans in the study were at risk for recidivism. In general, study participants reported the same risk factors for incarceration as those reported in the literature for non-Veteran inmates (Table 3). Risk factors included prior criminal convictions (72%), mental health conditions (72%), homelessness (24%), and alcohol and substance abuse (88% and 64%, respectively). Seventy-five percent of participants with an LSI–OR on file were either at high or very high risk of recidivism, as compared to only 61% of all men admitted to provincial correctional institutions in Ontario. The CSC study23 found that almost 90% of incarcerated Veterans were classified as medium-to-high static risk, and 89% were medium-to-high need.
Similar to data seen in U.S. studies,32 the Veterans in our study showed that they were incarcerated for more violent crimes than the general inmate population (see Table 4).
Some participants had extensive criminal backgrounds, while others had no prior convictions. Some had committed their first offence while in the military, some shortly after leaving the military, and others, decades later. Likewise, DASA found a lengthy gap between military discharge and custody for many ex-servicemen in the U.K. who became offenders.22
| Characteristic | % (no.) of Veteran admissions to Ontario institutions | Total % (no.) of male admissions to Ontario institutions* |
|---|---|---|
| (N = 25) | (N = 50,279) | |
| LSI-OR completed | 32% (8) | 76% (38,212) |
| Very high risk | 13% | 25% |
| High risk | 62% | 36% |
| Medium risk | 25% | 27% |
*
Admitted in 2015. Source: Ministry of Community Safety and Correctional Services.31
LSI-OR = Level of Service Inventory-Ontario Revised.
| Characteristic | % (no.) of Veteran remand admissions | Total % of male remand admissions* |
|---|---|---|
| (N = 24)† | (N = 39,992)‡ | |
| Homicide and related offences | 29.2 | 1 |
| Assault and related offences | 20 | 15.4 |
| Sexual (violent and non-violent) offences | 16.7 | 4.4 |
*
Admissions in 2015. Source: Ministry of Community Safety and Correctional Services.31
†
Twenty-four participants have been included in this table, rather than the total 25, because one was on immigration hold, not on remand.
‡
Note that these 39,992 individuals make up the 50,279 total admissions cited in Table 3. These numbers differ, as one individual may have had multiple admissions. In addition, this table only features remand admissions, not sentenced admissions.
Effects of military experience
Participants were asked to identify themes related to their military and post-service experiences. Incarcerated Veterans said the experience changed them and their ability to trust others. Many encountered threats to their lives and had witnessed death. They had experienced PTSD and mood disorders. They had trouble with substance use and family issues after leaving the military.
In a U.K. study, over 90% of inmates were found to have a mental health condition, a significant cause of morbidity in prisons.32 In the current study, 72% of participants had received a mental health diagnosis, and an equal number had received mental health treatment.
Incarcerated Veterans are members of two populations with documented elevations in suicide rates: inmates and Veterans. Although it has been hypothesized that this intersection would mean incarcerated Veterans face a higher suicide risk than either group independently, the true suicide rate among incarcerated Veterans is unknown.33 Almost 25% of the study participants expressed suicidal ideation upon admission.
Conclusion
Although many of the risk factors faced by incarcerated Veterans are similar to those of non-Veterans, this study reveals that there are specific differences in terms of age, education level and nature of charges between Veterans and non-Veterans incarcerated in Ontario detention centres. The data shows that the criminal history of Veterans studied cannot be readily attributed to their military service, given the criminogenic risk and need factors identified. The significance of combat-related PTSD, as an additional risk factor, is currently unknown.
The CAF will inevitably continue to be involved in international missions and,34 at this time, it is unknown whether the number of incarcerated Veterans will increase as a result. In the U.S., the number of incarcerated Veterans in state and federal prisons and local jails decreased from 2004 to 2011–2012, which was consistent with a decline in the number of Veterans in the U.S. general population.18 Regardless, as some Veterans will end up in Canadian jails or prisons, there is a need for comprehensive services and recognition of risk factors.
Several studies have already begun the necessary work of evaluating the effectiveness of support programs designed for incarcerated Veterans.35,36 These studies propose programs, such as Veteran-specific courts, individualized employment support programs, and reliable verification methods for Veteran status. As Wortzel et al note, the receipt of benefits by Veterans “has been shown to be associated with a reduction in the risk of deaths for Veterans when they are released from prison.”37 In a 2010 strategic plan by the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, the need for such programs was highlighted to “ensure access to exceptional care, tailored to individual needs, for justice-involved Veterans by linking each Veteran to VA and community services that will prevent homelessness, improve social and clinical outcomes, facilitate recovery and end Veterans’ cyclical contact with the criminal justice system.”38
If Veteran status was indicated upon admission to a correctional facility in Canada, it would be easier to identify this population and any specific needs they have that might differ from the general inmate population. A deeper understanding of the characteristics and risk factors associated with Veteran incarceration would enable VAC associates and correctional services to understand and address the needs of this at-risk population and tailor treatments accordingly.
Limitations and future directions
This study has a number of limitations. As the study comprised a convenience sample of volunteers at five Ontario provincial detention centres, representativeness of the sample to the general population of provincial inmates in Ontario may be limited. The sample size was also small, further restricting the generalization of results. Moreover, data relied primarily on self-reporting by participants. However, records for all CAF and half of U.S. Armed Forces participants were confirmed. Further research is required to advance understanding of the factors, including combat-related PTSD, that lead to the incarceration of Veterans.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to acknowledge the generous assistance we received from the staff of the five detention centres and one jail in facilitating our work during this study. We also want to thank Kathy Underhill, MSCSC, for the time she spent providing documents and answering the numerous questions of the principal investigator.
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REGISTRY AND REGISTRATION NO. OF THE STUDY/TRIAL:
The study was registered at the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, on November 26, 2012. Protocol Reference # REB 150/2012.
ANIMAL STUDIES
N/A
PEER REVIEW
This article has been peer reviewed.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Military, Veteran and Family Health
Volume 6 • Number S3 • December 2020
Pages: 21 - 30
Copyright
© Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, as represented by the Minister of National Defence. For permission to share, copy, or redistribute, contact [email protected].
History
Published ahead of print: 18 November 2020
Published in print: December 2020
Published online: 15 December 2020
Key Words:
Mots-clés :
Authors
Contributors
Isabelle Coté conceived and designed the study, retrieved and reviewed the literature, collected and analyzed the data, and edited and revised the manuscript. Marissa Heintzman helped analyze the results, retrieved and reviewed the literature, and drafted, edited, and revised the manuscript. Authors Graham D. Glancy, Helen Ward, and Mathieu Dufour helped develop the study design, collected the data, and edited and revised the manuscript. Kate Hardy helped analyze the results and edited and revised the manuscript. All authors approved the final version submitted for publication.
Competing Interests
None declared.
Funding
None declared.
Ethics Approval
The project received research ethics board approval from the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health and the Ontario Ministry of Community Safety and Correctional Services (MCSCS).
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from the participants.
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Journal of Military, Veteran and Family Health 2020 6:S3, 21-30
Journal of Military, Veteran and Family Health 2020 6:S3, 21-30